Chenchus - A Deccan Tribe in India struggling for survival

During the Paleolithic Age, the vast forests and park-lands of South India were inhabited by bands of nomadic people, who lived by hunting and the gathering of wild fruits, tubers, and edible roots. The only traces left by these early food gatherers are crude stone implements found on the surface of many parts of the Deccan; so far no skeletal remains of the early races have come to light. Yet, in some isolated parts of the subcontinent, small groups of aboriginals persisted until modern times in a way of life which outwardly had changed very little since the Stone Age.

The Chenchus of Andhra Pradesh are one of these ethnic splinter groups, which were left behind by the material advance of the great majority of the South Indian population. Their present habitat is confined to the rocky hills and forested plateaux of the Nallamalai Range, extending on both sides of the Krishna River. Until 1947 this river formed the border between the princely state of Hyderabad, officially known as His Exalted Highness the Nizam's Dominions, and the Madras Presidency of British India. At that time Chenchus were found both in Hyderabad and in British territories, but today their entire habitat lies within the state of Andhra Pradesh, which contains the overwhelming majority of the speakers of the Dravidian tongue of Telugu, the language spoken also by the Chenchus.

Chenchu family digging for edible roots and tubers

Although in the census of 1971 more than 18,000 Chenchus were enumerated, only a few hundred persist today in their traditional life-style as semi-nomadic forest dwellers.

In their physical make-up the Chenchus conform largely to a racial type described by anthropologists as Veddoid, a term derived from the Veddas, a primitive tribe of Sri Lanka (Ceylon). Like the Veddas, the Chenchus are of short and slender stature with very dark skin, wavy or curly hair, broad faces, flat noses, and a trace of prognathism. Though no longer dressing in leaves like their ancestors, of whom the seventeenth-century Muslim chronicler Ferishta gave a poignant description, they normally wear but the scantiest dress: the men small aprons suspended from a fibre or leather belt, the end drawn in between the legs, and the women cotton bodices and a length of sari-cloth wound round their hips. There is no people in India poorer in material possessions than the Jungle Chenchus; bows and arrows, a knife, an axe, a digging stick, some pots and baskets, and a few tattered rags constitute many a Chenchu's entire belongings. He usually owns a thatched hut in one of the small settlements where he lives during the monsoon rains and in the cold weather. But in the hot season communities split up and individual family groups camp in the open, under overhanging rocks or in temporary leaf-shelters.

The basic unit of Chenchu society is the nuclear family, consisting of a man, his wife, and their children. For all practical purposes husband and wife are partners with equal rights, and this equality of status means that the family may live with either the husband's or the wife's tribal group. Each such group holds hereditary rights to a tract of land, and within its boundaries its members are free to hunt and collect edible roots and tubers. These used to be the Chenchus' staple food, though we shall see that in recent years there has been a change in their diet and ways of subsistence.

The Chenchus are characterized by a strong sense of independence and personal freedom. None of them feels bound to any particular locality, and the ability to move from one group to the other allows men and women to choose the companions with whom they wish to share their daily lives. Marriage rules are based on the exogamy of patrilineal clans. As long as they observe the rules of clan exogamy young people are free to marry whomsoever they wish. Spouses can separate without any formality, but the abduction of a woman still living with her husband is disapproved of as immoral.

A Chenchu Settlement

In the sphere of religion the Chenchus evince certain characteristic traits which distinguish them from the surrounding Hindu peasantry. Though they worship some of the deities prominent in the cult of Telugu villagers, they accord much greater importance to a powerful goddess who has control over the game and the fruits of the forest. They also revere a sky god who shares some features, including name, with the Hindu supreme divinity Bhagavan and, though not believed to intervene very much in human affairs, is credited with power over life and death. The Chenchus' ideas of man's fate after death are vague, and it would seem that various notions adopted from their Hindu neighbours have not been incorporated into a consistent body of eschatological beliefs. There is no definite idea that a person's fate in the hereafter depends on his deeds in this life, even though some Chenchu stories contain references to reincarnation. More widespread is the belief that a person's life-force (jiv ) is derived from the supreme god and returns to him after death. The whole concept of a life-force, a belief common to various Indian populations, very likely stems from casual contacts with Hindus, and thus represents a comparatively new element in Chenchu thinking.

Until two or three generations ago, the Jungle Chenchus seem to have persisted in a life-style similar to that of the most archaic Indian tribal populations, and their traditional economy can hardly have been very different from that of forest dwellers of earlier ages. Despite recent developments and innovations, the Chenchus still stand out from all the other tribal populations of Andhra Pradesh.

In other parts of India, however, there are still some comparable groups of foodgatherers who have so far resisted the pressure to move out of the forests and change over to a more settled life. Several of these tribes inhabit the forested hills of the Southwest Indian state of Kerala. 

Environmental Pollution, Its Sources and Effects

Environmental pollution had been a fact of life for many centuries but it became a real problem since the start of the industrial revolution.

We discuss major aspects of this study area, from definitions to pollution types & sources as well as wide-ranging pollution effects.

So what is pollution? In order to get a better understanding of it, let’s have a look at some common definitions.

Oil Pollution Emissions 
© Graeme MacLean

Environmental pollution is “the contamination of the physical and biological components of the earth/atmosphere system to such an extent that normal environmental processes are adversely affected”. 

“Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the environment that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or that damage the environment” which can come “in the form of chemical substances, or energy such as noise, heat or light”. “Pollutants can be naturally occurring substances or energies, but are considered contaminants when in excess of natural levels.”

Pollution is “the addition of any substance or form of energy (e.g., heat, sound, radioactivity) to the environment at a rate faster than the environment can accommodate it by dispersion, breakdown, recycling, or storage in some harmless form”.

“Pollution is a special case of habitat destruction; it is chemical destruction rather than the more obvious physical destruction. Pollution occurs in all habitats—land, sea, and fresh water—and in the atmosphere.”

“Much of what we have come to call pollution is in reality the nonrecoverable matter resources and waste heat.” 

“Any use of natural resources at a rate higher than nature's capacity to restore itself can result in pollution of air, water, and land.”

“Pollution is habitat contamination”.

Perhaps the overriding theme of these definitions is the ability of the environment to absorb and adapt to changes brought about by human activities.

In one word, environmental pollution takes place when the environment cannot process and neutralize harmful by-products of human activities (for example, poisonous gas emissions) in due course without any structural or functional damage to its system.

In fact, “the due course” itself may last many years during which the nature will attempt to decompose the pollutants; in one of the worst cases – that of radioactive pollutants – it may take as long as thousands of years for the decomposition of such pollutants to be completed.

Pollution occurs, on the one hand, because the natural environment does not know how to decompose the unnaturally generated elements (i.e., anthropogenic pollutants), and, on the other, there is a lack of knowledge on the part of humans on how to decompose these pollutants artificially.

Why does pollution matter?

It matters first and foremost because it has negative impacts on crucial environmental services such as provision of clean air and clean water (and many others) without which life on Earth as we know it would not exist.

Introduction to Environmental Pollution

Although pollution had been known to exist for a very long time (at least since people started using fire thousands of years ago), it had seen the growth of truly global proportions only since the onset of the industrial revolution during the 19th century.

Environmental Pollution 
England, 19th Century
Courtesy: Wikimedia.org

The industrial revolution brought with it technological progress such as discovery of oil and its virtually universal use throughout different industries.

Technological progress facilitated by super efficiency of capitalist business practices (division of labour – cheaper production costs – overproduction – overconsumption – overpollution) had probably become one of the main causes of serious deterioration of natural resources.

At the same time, of course, development of natural sciences led to the better understanding of negative effects produced by pollution on the environment.

Environmental pollution is a problem both in developed and developing countries. Factors such as population growth and urbanization invariably place greater demands on the planet and stretch the use of natural resources to the maximum.

It has been argued that the carrying capacity of Earth is significantly smaller than the demands placed on it by large numbers of human populations. And overuse of natural resources often results in nature’s degradation.

It’s interesting to note that natural resources had been stored virtually untouched in the Earth for millions of years.

But since the start of the industrial revolution vast amounts of these resources had been exploited within a period of just a couple of hundred of years at unimaginable rates, with all the waste from this exploitation going straight in to the environment (air, water, land) and seriously damaging its natural processes.

Environmental Pollutants:
What Are They & How Do They Decompose?

Environmental pollutants are constituent parts of the pollution process. They are the actual “executing agents” of environmental pollution.

They come in gaseous, solid or liquid form.

It is interesting to note that, as of 1990, there were around 65,000 different chemicals in the marketplace, i.e. potential environmental pollutants that were to be released into air, water and land on a regular basis.

We assume that, as of 2011 - 2012, this number may be significantly higher.

Renowned author Miguel A. Santos identifies at least three general characteristics of environmental pollutants 

Beach pollution in Malaysia
which travels from China
© epSos.de
• Pollutants don't recognize boundaries, i.e. they are transboundary;
• Many of them can't be degraded by living organisms and therefore stay in the ecosphere for many years; and
• They destroy biota and habitat.

These points emphasize that pollutants present a serious long-term global problem that affects more or less every country and, therefore, can only be solved by a coordinated set of actions and unwavering commitment of nations to international environmental agreements.

In order to develop and implement an effective international policy for pollutants’ management, it is important, among other factors, to understand their decomposition mechanisms.

We know that decomposition of pollutants can occur either biologically or physicochemically.

Biological Decomposition of Environmental Pollutants

Santos divides environmental pollutants into biodegradable and non-biodegradable ones, and describes them as follows.

Biodegradable Pollutants

Fruit peel
is biodegradable
© Fotoos Van Robin

Biodegradable pollutants are the ones that can be broken down and processed by living organisms, including organic waste products, phosphates, and inorganic salts.

For example, if a pollutant is organic, it can be used by a living organism to obtain energy and other material from carbohydrates, proteins etc.

Therefore, biodegradable pollutants are only “temporary nuisances” that can be neutralised and converted into harmless compounds.

However, it is important to remember that they can become serious pollutants if released in large amounts in small areas, thus exceeding the natural capacity of the environment to “assimilate” them.

Non-Biodegradable Pollutants

Plastic may look
beautiful but it is
not biodegradable
© Nolte Lourens

Non-biodegradable pollutants are the ones that cannot be decomposed by living organisms and therefore persist in the ecosphere for extremely long periods of time.

They include plastics, metal, glass, some pesticides and herbicides, and radioactive isotopes.

In addition to that, fat soluble (but not water soluble) non-biodegradable pollutants, ex. mercury and some hydrocarbons, are not excreted with urine but are accumulated in the fat of living organisms and cannot be metabolised.

Non-Biological Decomposition of Environmental Pollutants

Non-biological decomposition of non-biodegradable pollutants requires a combination of many factors, such as wind, water and climate to work together to achieve neutralisation of pollutants.

Some of the most dangerous pollutants such as radioactive isotopes can decompose by themselves but it will take them thousands of years.

Removal of Air Pollutants from the Atmosphere

Air pollutants, as opposed to solid and liquid pollutants found on land and in water, may be removed from the atmosphere through wet deposition or dry deposition.

In case of wet deposition pollutants make way into clouds or other precipitation and then get deposited onto the surface of the Earth by way of rain. In case of dry deposition, pollutants are deposited directly onto the planet's surface and vegetation, such as plants and trees of tropical rainforests.

We may assume that once air pollution has been deposited onto the planet's surface, the normal rules of biological and non-biological decomposition for other types of pollutants will apply.

Types of Environmental Pollution

Generally speaking, there are many types of environmental pollution but the most important ones are:

• Air pollution
• Water pollution
• Soil pollution (contamination)

Some of the most notable air pollutants are sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, ozone, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and airborne particles, with radioactive pollutants probably among the most destructive ones (specifically when produced by nuclear explosions).

Our Air Pollutants article provides a clear overview of sources and effects of these air pollutants.

Water pollutants include insecticides and herbicides, food processing waste, pollutants from livestock operations, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), heavy metals, chemical waste and others.

Some soil pollutants are: hydrocarbons, solvents and heavy metals.

So where does environmental pollution come from?

Sources of Environmental Pollution

Fossil Fuel Sources of Environmental Pollution

Oil Pollution
© Rachel Scopes

In modern industrialized societies, fossil fuels (oil, gas, coal) transcended virtually all imaginable barriers and firmly established themselves in our everyday lives.

Not only do we use fossil fuels for our obvious everyday needs (such as filling a car), as well as in the power-generating industry, they (specifically oil) are also present in such products as all sorts of plastics, solvents, detergents, asphalt, lubricating oils, a wide range of chemicals for industrial use, etc.

Combustion of fossil fuels produces extremely high levels of air pollution and is widely recognized as one of the most important “target” areas for reduction and control of environmental pollution.

Fossil fuels also contribute to soil contamination and water pollution. For example, when oil is transported from the point of its production to further destinations by pipelines, an oil leak from the pipeline may occur and pollute soil and subsequently groundwater. When oil is transported by tankers by ocean, an oil spill may occur and pollute ocean water.

Of course, there are other natural resources whose exploitation is a cause of serious pollution; for example, the use of uranium for nuclear power generation produces extremely dangerous waste that would take thousands of years to neutralize.

But there is no reasonable doubt that fossil fuels are among the most serious sources of environmental pollution.

Power-generating plants and transport are probably the biggest sources of fossil fuel pollution.

Common sources of fossil fuel pollution are:

Industry:

• Power-generating plants
• Petroleum refineries
• Petrochemical plants
• Production and distribution of fossil fuels
• Other manufacturing facilities

Transport:

• Road transport (motor vehicles)
• Shipping industry
• Aircraft

Fossil fuel combustion is also a major source of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and perhaps the most important cause of global warming. Learn more about the causes and effects of global warming here.

Other (Non-Fossil Fuel) Sources of Environmental Pollution

© Constantin Opris

Among other pollution sources, agriculture (livestock farming) is worth mentioning as the largest generator of ammonia emissions resulting in air pollution.

Chemicals such as pesticides and fertilizers are also widely used in agriculture, which may lead water pollution and soil contamination as well.

Trading activities may be another source of environmental pollution.

For example, it’s been recently noted that packaging of products sold in supermarkets and other retail outlets is far too excessive and generates large quantities of solid waste that ends up either in landfills or municipal incinerators leading to soil contamination and air pollution.

Residential sector is another significant source of pollution generating solid municipal waste that may end up in landfills or incinerators leading to soil contamination and air pollution.

Our unique analysis of Causes of Pollution will give you an excellent perspective on the fundamental pollution drivers such as globalization,industrialization and population growth.

You will also learn about why we refer to production and consumption as primary & secondary causes of environmental pollution; plus get a schematic presentation of pollution sources - i.e., actual economic sectors such as manufacturing, power generation, residential sector and so on.

Since air pollution is one of the largest areas of environmental pollution studies, our discussion on Air Pollution Causes explains how each major pollutant contributes specifically to air pollution.

Environmental Pollution Effects

Environmental pollution effects can be truly damaging.

Please read our detailed analysis of all types of Pollution Effects here, where we discuss the effects of air pollution, water pollution and soil pollution.

Some of the effects of air pollution include asthma, reduced energy levels, irritation of eyes, disruption of the immune system, malfunction of the central nervous system, cancer.

For a further in-depth analysis of Air Pollution Effects, please see here.

Water pollution can cause skin rashes & allergies, all sorts of water-borne infections, vomiting & stomach aches, malfunction of the central nervous system and so on.

Soil pollution is, in a way, connected to water pollution and may cause cancer, headaches, fatigue, skin rashes and so on.

Environmental Pollution - Conclusion

Environmental pollution is causing a lot of distress not only to humans but also animals, driving many animal species to endangerment and even extinction.

Pollution is Not Glamorous
© Caleb Coppola

The transboundary nature of environmental pollution makes it even more difficult to manage it – you cannot build brick walls along the borders of your country or put customs cabins at every point of entry to regulate its flows into your country.

Everything on our planet is interconnected, and while the nature supplies us with valuable environmental services without which we cannot exist, we all depend on each other’s actions and the way we treat natural resources.

It’s widely recognised that we are hugely overspending our current budget of natural resources – at the existing rates of its exploitation, there is no way for the environment to recover in good time and continue “performing” well in the future.

Perhaps we should adopt a holistic view of nature – it is not an entity that exists separately from us; the nature is us, we are an inalienable part of it, and we should care for it in the most appropriate manner. Only then can we possibly solve the problem of environmental pollution.

courtesy - Irina Gray & Tropical-Rainforest-Animals.com  

RAMSAR SITES IN INDIA

The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance adopted at Ramsar, Iran in Feb. 1971, popularly known as Ramsar Convention, aims to preserve and protect wetland ecosystems together with dependent water bird species and make the wise use of wetlands for the benefit of people.

Wetlands cover 3 % of the Indian landmass and harbor a vast variety of life forms that are a part of the complex food of these transitional ecosystems. About 320 species of birds are associated with the Indian Wetlands. Apart from birds, the wetlands support a diverse population of plants & animals including 150 species of amphibians.

Since signing this convention in 1982, India has till date designated 19 wetlands as Ramsar sites. Some of these sites are:

Bhoj Wetland

Included on 19/08/02. in Madhya Pradesh. is two contiguous human made reservoirs the "Upper Lake" was created in the 11th century by construction of an earthen dam across the Kolans River, and the lower was constructed nearly 200 years ago, largely from leakage from the Upper, and is surrounded by the city of Bhopal. The lakes are very rich in biodiversity, particularly for macrophytes, phytoplankton, zooplankton, both natural and cultured fish species, both resident and migratory birds, insects, and reptiles and amphibians. A number of bird species have been sighted which had rarely or never before been seen in the region since last couple of years.

Kanjli Lake

Included on 22/01/02 in Punjab is a permanent stream, the Kali Bein, converted by construction of a small barrage in 1870 into a water storage area for irrigation purposes. The site fulfils Criteria 3 because of its importance in supporting a considerable diversity of aquatic, mesophytic, and terrestrial flora and fauna in the biogeographical region, and acts also as a key regulator of groundwater discharge and recharge with the seasons. By this means and by direct abstraction of water for irrigation by the local population, the site plays a crucial role in the agriculture which predominates on the surrounding fertile plain, with fewer pressures upon water supplies than elsewhere in the Punjab.

Harike Wetland

Included on 23/03/90 in Punjab is a shallow water reservoir with thirteen islands, at the confluence of two rivers. Dense floating vegetation covers 70% of the lake. An important site for breeding, wintering and staging birds, supporting over 200,000 Anatidae (ducks, geese, swans, etc.) during migration.

Ashtamudi Lake

Included on 19/08/02 is an extensive estuarine system, the second largest in Kerala State, which is of extraordinary importance for its hydrological functions, its biodiversity, and its support for fish. The site supports a number of mangrove species as well as over 40 associated plant species, and 57 species of birds have been observed, including six that are migratory. Nearly 100 species of fish are to be found in this area.

Deeper Beel

Included on 19/08/02 in Assam.is a permanent freshwater lake in a former channel of the Brahmaputra river, of great biological importance and also essential as the only major storm water storage basin for the city of Guwahati. The beel is a staging site on migratory flyways and some of the largest concentrations of aquatic birds in Assam can be seen, especially in winter. Some globally threatened birds are supported, including Spotbilled Pelican (Pelicanus philippensis), Lesser and Greater Adjutant Stork (Leptoptilos javanicus and dubius), and Baer's Pochard (Aythya baeri).

Chilka Lake

Included on 01/10/81 in Orissa is a brackish lake separated from the Bay of Bengal by a long sandy ridge and subject to sea water exchange, resulting in extreme seasonal fluctuations in salinity in different sections of the lake. Saline areas support aquatic algae. The site is an important area for breeding, wintering and staging for 33 species of waterbirds. It also supports 118 species of fish, including commercially important species.

Kolleru Lake

Included on 19/08/02 in Andhra Pradesh is a natural eutrophic lake, situated between the two major river basins of the Godavari and the Krishna, fed by two seasonal rivers and a number of drains and channels, which functions as a natural flood balancing reservoir between the deltas of the two rivers. It provides habitat for a number of resident and migratory birds, including declining numbers of the vulnerable Grey Pelican (Pelecanus philippensis), and sustains both culture and capture fisheries, agriculture and related occupations of the people in the area.

Chitals in Keoladeo Park

Keoladeo National Park

Included on 01/10/81 in Rajasthan is a World Heritage Site and has a complex of ten artificial, seasonal lagoons, varying in size, situated in a densely populated region. Vegetation is a mosaic of scrub and open grassland that provides habitat for breeding, wintering and staging migratory birds. Also supported are five species of ungulates, four species of cats, and two species of primates, as well as diverse plants, fish and reptiles. The canal provides water for agriculture and domestic consumption. Cattle and water buffalo graze on the site.

Bhitarkanika Mangroves

Bhitarkanika wetland (Odisha)

Included on 19/08/02 in Orissa. is one of the finest remaining patches of mangrove forests along the Indian coast 25 years of continued conservation measures have made the site one of the best known wildlife sanctuaries. The site's Gahirmatha beach is said to host the largest known Olive Ridley sea turtle nesting beach in the world, with half a million nesting annually, and the site has the highest density of saltwater crocodile in the country, with nearly 700 Crocodylus porosus. It is a major breeding and wintering place for many resident and migratory waterbirds and is the east coast's major nursery for brackish water and estuarine fish fauna. Like many mangrove areas, the dense coastal forests provide vital protection for millions of people from devastating cyclones and tidal surges of India's 58 recorded species of mangroves, 55 species are found in Bhitarkanika, wider mangrove diversity than in the Sundarbans!

East Calcutta Wetlands

Included on 19/08/02 in West Bengal. is world renowned as a model of a multiple use wetland, the site's resource recovery systems, developed by local people through the ages, have saved the city of Calcutta from the costs of constructing and maintaining waste water treatment plants. The wetland forms an urban facility for treating the city's waste water and utilizing the treated water for pisciculture and agriculture, through the recovery of nutrients in an efficient manner the water flows through fish ponds covering about 4,000 ha, and the ponds act as solar reactors and complete most of their biochemical reactions with the help of solar energy. Thus the system is described as "one of the rare examples of environmental protection and development management where a complex ecological process has been adopted by the local farmers for mastering the resource recovery activities" (RIS). The wetland provides about 150 tons of fresh vegetables daily, as well as some 10,500 tons of table fish per year, the latter providing livelihoods for about 50,000 people directly and as many again indirectly.

Point Calimere

Included on 19/08/02.in Tamil Nadu. is situated in coastal area consisting of shallow waters, shores, and long sand bars, intertidal flats and intertidal forests, chiefly mangrove, and seasonal, often saline lagoons, as well as human made salt exploitation sites. Some 257 species of birds have been recorded, 119 of them waterbirds, including the vulnerable species Spoonbill Sandpiper (Euryhorhynchus pygmaeus) and Grey Pelican (Pelecanus philippensis) and some 30,000 Greater and Lesser Flamingos. The site serves as the breeding ground or nursery for many commercially important species of fish, as well as for prawns and crabs.

VembanandKole Wetland

Included on 19/08/02 in Kerala. is the largest brackish, humid tropical wetland ecosystem on the southwest coast of India, fed by 10 rivers and typical of large estuarine systems on the western coast, renowned for its clams and supporting the third largest waterfowl population in India during the winter months. Over 90 species of resident birds and 50 species of migratory birds are found in the Kol area.

Ropar Lake

Included on 22/01/02 in Punjab is a human made wetland of lake and river formed by the 1952 construction of a barrage for diversion of water from the Sutlej River for drinking and irrigation supplies. The site is an important breeding place for the nationally protected Smooth Indian Otter,

Hog Deer,Sambhar , and several reptiles, and the endangered Indian Pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) is thought to be present. Some 35 species of fish play an important role in the food chain, and about 150 species of local and migratory birds are supported.

Tsomiriri

Included on 19/08/02 in Jammu & Kashmir is a freshwater to brackish lake lying at 4,595m above sea level, with wet meadows and boraxladen wetlands along the shores. The site is said to represent the only breeding ground outside of China for one of the most endangered cranes, the

Blacknecked crane (Grus nigricollis), and the only breeding ground for Barheaded geese in India. The Great Tibetan Sheep or Argali (Ovis

ammon hodgsoni) and Tibetan Wild Ass (Equus kiang) are endemic to the Tibetan plateau, of which the Changthang is the westernmost part.

Wular Lake

Included on 23/03/90 in Jammu & Kashmir is the largest freshwater lake in India with extensive marshes of emergent and floating vegetation, particularly water chestnut, that provide an important source of revenue for the State Government and fodder for domestic livestock. The lake supports an important fishing industry and is a valuable source of water for irrigation and domestic use. The area is important for wintering, staging and breeding birds.

Loktak Lake

Included on 23/03/90 in Manipur is a large, but shrinking freshwater lake and associated swamplands supplied by several streams. Thick, floating mats of weeds covered with soil (‘phumids’) are a characteristic feature. The lake is used extensively by local people as a source of water for irrigation and domestic use and is an important wintering and staging area for water birds, particularly ducks.

Pong Dam Lake

Included on 19/08/02 in Himachal Pradesh is a water storage reservoir created in 1975 on the Beas River in the low foothills of the Himalaya on the northern edge of the IndoGangetic plain. The RIS notes that "at a time when wetlands in northern India are getting reduced due to extensive drainage and reclamation, the avian habitats formed by the creation of the Pong Dam assume a great significance" given the site's location on the transHimalayan flyway, more than 220 bird species have been identified, with 54 species of waterfowl. Lowyield subsistence fishing existed prior to impoundment, but since, a lucrative fishery has grown up, with 27 fish species and a yield increasing markedly each year some 1800 fishermen now have direct employment and 1000 families benefit indirectly.

Sambhar

Included on 23/03/90 in Rajasthan is a large saline lake fed by four streams set in a shallow wetland and subject to seasonal fluctuations. It is surrounded by sand flats and dry thorn scrub and fed by seasonal rivers and streams. The site is important for a variety of wintering waterbirds, including large numbers of flamingos. Sasthamkotta Lake Included on 19/08/02 in Kerala is the largest freshwater lake in Kerala state in the southwest of the country, springfed and the source of drinking water for half a million people in the Kollam district. Some 27 freshwater fish species are present. The water contains no common salts or other minerals and supports no water plants; a larva called "cavaborus" abounds and eliminates bacteria in the water, thus contributing to its exceptional purity.

Courtesy- Indian Nature Tours ™

India and Climate Change

Climate change is nothing but the rise in the temperature of the earth’s atmosphere due to an increase in the level of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, methane, etc. Due to anthropological or human induced factors there has been a sharp increase in the level of greenhouse gases which leads to an increase in the temperature of the earth’s surface causing various ecological imbalances in the world.

These emissions are also called carbon emissions since the main components of greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide and methane; both carbon rich gases. These emissions are a by-product of many human activities consisting of mainly industrial activities. All human activities relating to the modern lifestyle of today’s man are large contributors to the issue of climate change.

The problem of climate change is mainly atrributed to the industrial revolution. All the activities in the industrialization process necessitate an increase in carbon emissions. Thus, the development processes of a country as well as its carbon emissions go hand-in-hand.

The monumental problems of climate change faced by the world today are a cause of the rapid industrialization that took place in the last century. Thus, the developed world is the major culprit of this crime which led to the exploitation and degradation of our atmosphere. But, the developing countries, which have just recently begun their journey to the destination of development, are made to shoulder the responsibility of mitigating the adverse effects of climate change by reduction in the carbon emissions levels emitted by them.

This is a cause of major hindrance in the development process of a country like India and can be seen as unfair on the part of the developed nations to slow down the pace of development in such nations at such a crucial stage.

India has taken major steps in reducing its carbon emissions though it is not bound by legal agreements to cut down its carbon emissions, . India signed the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change on June 10, 1992 and ratified it on November 1, 1993. India hosted the eighth Conference of Parties to the UNFCCC in October 2002 in Delhi. It signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol, one of the most important international agreements on climate change on August 26th, 2002. In pursuance of the goals of implementing the provisions of the UNFCCC Convention, a project was initiated towards preparation of India's National Communication on sources of greenhouse gas emissions (NATCOM) to the UNFCCC through the United Nations Development Programme. The Global Environmental Facility is funding many projects that India has taken up with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions. These projects are mostly related to small-scale projects which are largely based on renewable energy sources.

India’s power sector, already plagued with problems does not have to intensify its problems multifold by committing itself to inject huge financial resources in developing alternate forms of energy or clean environment-friendly technology.

Though India understands the gravity of the situation, the mitigation of climate change at the cost of its development seems like an unfair bargain. The major emitters of the previous century which increased their carbon emissions incessantly to pursue the path of rapid development cannot expect developing countries to forget their own development to clean up the developed countries’ mess.

India, being a fast growing economy has many obligations towards its own citizens to provide them with better standards of living which can only be obtained through a massive expansion of the economy. The wealth of the country needs to be increased and distributed in a holistic manner to decrease the problems of poverty and low standard of living prevalent in majority of the population. India’s infrastructure sector which is the major driver of economic growth cannot be unnecessarily burdened with the monumental task of mitigating climate change and incurring huge financial expenditure in the process when it itself is financially starved and in need of assistance from private sector.

Thus, India being a minor contributor to the world’s GHG emissions and having one of the lowest per-capita emissions in the world, should be allowed to follow the development path and achieve high levels of GDP growth rate in order to meet the demands of its population and provide its citizens with a high standard of living without incurring huge financial expenditure on climate change mitigation which proves to be an impediment in the growth story of the country. They should be allowed to emit at an increased rate as necessitated by the development process the same way in which developed countries did in their developing phase.

Global Warming Could Mean Less Food for Us!

According to a latest study, global warming could cause an 18 percent drop in world food production by 2050, but investments in irrigation and infrastructure, and moving food output to different regions, could reduce the loss.
The study published in the journal Environmental Research Letters suggests that globally, irrigation systems should be expanded by more than 25 percent to cope with changing rainfall patterns, the study published in the journal Environmental Research Letters. Where they should be expanded is difficult to model because of competing scenarios on how rainfall will change, so the majority of irrigation investments should be made after 2030, the study states.

"If you don't carefully plan (where to spend resources), you will get adaptation wrong," says David Leclere, one of the study's authors. Infrastructure and processing chains will need to be built in areas where there was little agriculture before in order to expand production, he said.

International food markets will require closer integration to respond to global warming, as production will become more difficult in some southern regions, but new land further north will become available for growing crops.

Based on the study's models, Leclere expects production to increase in Europe, while much of Africa will remain dependent on imports. If climate change is managed correctly, food production could even rise 3 percent by 2050, the study said, as a higher concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has a fertilizing effect on plants.

Managing water resources is expected to be the biggest challenge for farmers due to climate change. Water "may become dramatically scarcer much earlier than previously thought", Michael Obersteiner, another study co-author, said in a statement.

Environmental Impacts of Quarrying and Mining

As essential industries in today’s environmentally aware society, it is vital that quarrying, mining and dredging operations ensure that they achieve the best possible environmental management of their activities. Poor environmental management within the industry results not only in non-compliance of legislation, which includes heavy fines, but also in poor public relations, loss of business, and loss and destruction of wildlife and habitats. Good environmental management in the industry can result in good publicity and public relations, increase in business, and the creation of habitats for a variety species, including endangered species and specialist habitats.

Understanding the essential role of the extractive industry and its contribution to society is an important part of the education process. It is equally important to recognize and increase understanding of the industries environmental impacts, both negative and positive, and understand management techniques to both mitigate in the former and enhance in the latter.

Mining involves bunch of activities which affects the natural balance like removal of top and subsoil for access to resources underneath, the mechanical handling of minerals and so on. Given are some of the activities and their impacts on environment.

Removal of top soil for accessing natural resources

The most potential impact of removal of top and sub soil is loss of organic rich soil and the forms of life it contains. Land without top and sub-soil is less capable of sustaining life and barren land after quarry operations have ceased if the land is not restored with soil.

Permission for extraction sites usually require the strategy for the movement of soils to be drawn up before permission is granted during the planning process, unless restoration is to commercial or domestic development. The need for progressive restoration is usually stressed in planning conditions. Soil can also be stored for use in the sites restoration by preventing it from contamination by weeds, seeds, etc.

The mechanical handling of minerals

Most probable impact of mineral handling is dust emission. The emitted dust gets deposited in nearby surrounding which becomes a hazard for the health of living beings in that area. Ecological impacts like Physical effects of stomata damage and blockage, resulting in drought stress and Chemical effects of dust either directly on the plant surface or on the soil health cannot be undermined.

These impacts can be minimised certainly by preventing the dust becoming airborne. It can either be achieved through legislation or/and good practices. Active monitoring devices for occupational health and safety methods, and passive monitoring devices for a broader approach, including for nuisance effects can be effective. An Environmental Management System (EMS) can be encouraged for the effective ongoing assessment of impacts, such as the Eco-Management. Dust assessment survey can be used to effectively reduce the dust emission. More of the protection measures like placing dust generating activities where maximum protection can be obtained from topography, woodland or other features; locating dust generating activities where prevailing winds will blow dust away from residential properties/sensitive premises/ users; minimising the need to transport and handle materials by placing adequate storage facilities close to processing areas can also be considered.

Removal of a wild area for site operations

It may result into loss of species and habitat if area is not restored for wildlife. The alteration to existing habitat (e.g. creation of soil storage mounds, creation of barriers, fragmentation of habitats, changes in numbers to predator/prey, introduction of new habitats/species) and The removal of wildlife and habitats in the surrounding area (due to loss/reduction of species bank, removal of keystone species) may lead to detrimental effects.

Legislative side to protect wildlife form the negative impacts of mining activities consists of bunch of acts like Wildlife protection act, 1972;  Indian Forest Act, 1927; National Biodiversity rule, 2002, etc. Ecological Impact assessments (EIA) are required as part of the planning process, which has many purposes like demonstrating that a proposed development, will meet the legal requirement relating to species and to determine the significance of impacts affecting valued species and habitats. It can also be worked out by Identifying and designing measures to mitigate and compensate for negative impacts, and also measures to achieve positive enhancement for example alternative Sites can be considered wherever possible to avoid any impacts in the first place, Habitat creation is possible both during site restoration and during the operational period of the site, providing opportunities for the enhancement of wildlife and habitats.

The production of mineral waste

It has a visual impact especially when waste is dumped off site and piled high. Large overburden dumps, and if allowed to dry out, silt from settling ponds, can be a source of dust. Runoff from wastes can carry sediment that can potentially contaminate the water environment and cause erosion.

It is important to recognise that operators are always keen to minimise the amount of mineral waste they produce as material that is dug and not used is wasting time and money. There are many laws like Environmental protection act, 1986; EIA notification, 2006; Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974; MCDR 1988, etc  to deal with the negative impacts of pollution caused by mineral waste produced through mining activities. Good practice like reducing waste through proper planning by mining authorities, proper restoration of top and sub soil for future use, keeping waste out of sight within workings, ensuring that contamination is encased, can help reduce the impacts to a great extent.

Change in/removal of land use

Change in land use for mining activities may lead to anaesthetic surrounding, visual problems, conflicts with existing land use, and bad relations with surrounding communities.. The mining authorities should follow guidelines by the government in the form of national and regional guides and strategies. Government policy should require greater consultation and involvement with the community during planning. Permission should be refused for site development where adverse effects on the local community, environmental damage or loss of amenity cannot be kept to an acceptable minimum.